The Violin in Carnatic Music

From the Ravanhasta to the Indian violin

Some people get irritated when I conjure up a story connecting something from the present to its past origins in India. They equate it to the pater in “my fat Greek wedding’ who would connect everything great to Greek history. But I guess it has to be accepted, for the flow of ideas, business and goods from the East to the West has origins going back to times before the advent of the Gregorian calendar. Look at a recent discovery, they found prehistoric rock art (petroglyphs) in a Konkan village, going back tens of thousands of years depicting hunting, sea creatures like whales and sharks, and animals not local such as the Hippo and the Rhino. But well, I will not get into all that, this is an article on a musical instrument and its journey from India through China, Lanka, the west and finally back to India, the instrument being the Violin.

So many great names are associated with this stringed instrument played with a bow. Names of those who made the best violins such as Stradivarius, Amati and Stainer are frequently mentioned together with virtuosos who played it like Vivaldi, Yehudi Menuhin and those who composed violin pieces such as Bach, Beethoven, Mozart. But not listed in this western ensemble is the person credited with the invention of the first stringed instrument played with a bow, the legendary king of Lanka named Ravana.

Well, one could of course question his existence and state that the tales of Ravana were just an orally retold epics. Nevertheless, let us take a look at that story and proceed on. Most historians and musicians agree that the Ravanhatta (Ravanostron, ravana hasta or Ravan hatha – Ravan’s hand) is one of the early stringed instruments played with a bow. F J Fetis, in his 1856 work " Notice d'Antoine Stradivari " explains this succinctly “If we would trace a bow-instrument to its source we must assume the most simple form in which it could appear, and as such required no assistance from an art brought to perfection, and such a form we shall find in the Ravanastron, made of a cylinder of sycamore wood hollowed out from one end to the other.

Let’s figure out the connections between Ravana and this instrument. Its birth is believed to have taken place under traumatic circumstances. According to a legend which goes thus, Ravana’s mother Kaikasi, an ardent devotee of Shiva, was eager to go and live in the god’s abode on Mount Kailash at the Himalayas. Ravana opposed the plan vehemently, but to please his mother he promised to bring Mount Kailash to Sri Lanka. As Ravana was lifting the mountain, an angry Shiva trapped his 10 heads and 20 arms. Writhing in pain, Ravana prayed for mercy. When Shiva let him off, Ravana wisely decided to sing his praise and instantly made an accompanying instrument using one of his heads, an arm and some of his hair. The soulful music emanating from Ravana’s instrument is said to have moved Shiva, who bestowed immortality on him.

Another account states that Ravana, the 10-headed king of demons was an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva. He played the veena for Siva and pleased him with his beautiful recitals so much that Shiva started his ‘Anandatandav’ dance to the music. As the veena recital grew intense, so did the lord’s dance. Suddenly the ‘siras’ (head) of the veena broke. Without thinking twice, Ravan cut one of his heads and attached it to the veena and continued his performance. And when the veena’s ‘ambhana’ (sound board) broke, Ravana cut one of his 20 hands and replaced it. The folklore further goes like this. The strings broke next. Ravana plucked out some of his veins and attached it to the veena. Neither did the music stop nor did the Lord’s dance.

Herrod –Allen explains - The violin in its present form was not perfected until about 1500. One reads of no instruments played with a bow in Egypt, Assyria or Greece, but in India there is the legend of a king named Ravana who lived five thousand years ago and was such a good musician that the gods themselves listened to his songs. He invented an instrument called the Ravanastron, consisting simply of a little hollow cylinder of wood. The two strings stretched across were played with a bow. From the monochord, the violin acquired its bridge, supporting the strain of the strings, and its finger board, which helps to mark the places of the tones.

But that was all in Lanka. Hanuman is credited with bringing it to the mainland, where it is still played in Rajasthan and in Agra area, and locally known as the Ravanahatha. From India, the Ravanahatha travelled westwards to the Middle East and Europe, where in the 9th century, it came to be called the Ravanastron. But we should clarify the description above a little bit too - The instrument is made up of a bowl-shaped resonator fashioned from a cut coconut shell that is covered with goat hide. A long bamboo body, the Dandi, is attached to the bowl. The principal strings are made of steel and horsehair.

It would not be unwise to introduce a little diversion here, if one chose to disbelieve the legends detailed previously. The Ancient Pulluva caste of Malabar were players of the Pulluva Veena, a form of the Ravanstron described above. The Pulluvan Veena, also known as 'Veena kunju', is a typical single stringed musical instrument used by these iterant musicians of Kerala. This basic instrument, shaped somewhat like a violin, is made from arrali (teak), jackfruit and coconut shell. Its string is made from a plant known as naagachitaamradaa. The string is stretched across a dish-shaped kinnam (resonator), which has a wooden stem attached to it. There are some wooden bangles at the end of the bow, used to provide rhythms while playing. Was that how the instrument came into being eons ago? Food for thought, I guess!

If one were to disregard legends and look for more leads, you will still find them in India. Herron-Allen quotes Engels “However this may be, there is a great probability that the fiddle originated in Hindustan, for Sanskrit scholars inform us that there are names for the bow which cannot be less than 1500 to 2000 years old. These names are Kona, Garika, and Parivadas. Moreover, it is remarkable that the most simple form of Ravanastron - there are nowadays some varieties of this instrument—is almost identical with the Chinese fiddle called Ur-heen. This species has only two strings, and consists of a small block of wood hollowed out and covered with the skin of a serpent. The Ur-heen has not been mentioned among the most ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of its having been known in China before the introduction of the Buddhist religion into that country from India. From indications, which to point out would lead too far here, it would seem that several instruments found in China originated in Hindustan."

Another form of modern instrument almost identical with the Ravanastron is the Indian Omerti and, coming a step westwards, almost identical with the Omerti is the modern Turkish and Arabian Kemangeh a'gouz. In one of his earlier works M. Fetis derived the origin of bow instruments from the Goudok of the Russian peasantry, but in a later work he corrects this, and ascribes the Goudok to its proper source, viz., the Rebab, and thence through the Kemangeh and Omerti to the Ravanastron of ancient and modern India.

So perhaps it was prevalent in the Northern parts of India, played by the nath bavas, from where it traveled to China with iterant Buddhists, and came down with them to SE Asia (Burma) and simultaneously with the spice trade, spread westwards into Arabia. It went on to develop into the Rehab, then the Kermangeh, the goudock, and the Anglo Saxon Rote (Chrotta, Crwth). From the Rotta it developed into the 6 string Viol and later to the 4 stringed, hair bow played  instruments developed by Gasparo Salo or Amati Violin, which we know of today. And there it rested for many hundred years as musicians tuned and perfected it.

It is clear that the Portuguese, French and the Dutch colonials who made India their home between the 15^th and 19^th century brought Violins with them, but the instrument did not cross the musical borders between Western and Carnatic music.

One should note here that the Portuguese and the French musicians did use the violin and kapri music included use of the Portuguese rebequo / rabaeca / ravukinnai. Mentions can be found in communications - Georg Pock, the Nuremberg merchant, writing on January 1st, 1522, from Cochin to his countryman, Michael Behaim, draws an ugly picture of the Portuguese character. He writes of them plainly: "The Portuguese, who are born Portuguese, poison the air with their pride. Should one of them possess ten ducats, he must have a velvet coat, a silver dagger, polished boots, and a violin with which to steal about the streets at nights and serenade the ladies”. The observation of Bishop Joseph Sebastiani that “There is no town or village of Christians which does not have in its church an organ, harp and a viola and a good choir of musicians who sing for festivities and for holidays, vespers, masses and litanies and with much cooperation and devotion” shows the background of Luso-Indians concerning their love for music. Catholic children were taught to play violin and to sing hymns, Psalms and ladinhas.

Other violin like instruments were developed in India over time, but did not really form part of formal music vocal concerts as they came about. The usual accompaniments were the Veena, Nadaswaram, Mridangam, Ghatam and so on, until the king of the instruments - the fiddle or Violin appeared on the scene. But it is also possible that dance performances such as Dasiyattam had the violin as an accompaniment, before the advent of vocal concerts. A mural in Tipu’s Seringapatanam shows a violin player accompanying a dance performance, indicating a French link. All these are pre 19^th century.

The crossover to Carnatic music had to wait until missionaries during the British period established a better rapport with a southern monarch Serfoji II. Let us now see how that happened.

Some months ago, we discussed the origins and development of Carnatic music. We noted that the golden age was the period when the Trinity of Thyagaraja, Dikshitar and Syama Sastri ruled at Tiruvavur in the late 18^th century. During this period the Violin quietly entered the Carnatic scene. Unlike the harmonium, it found patrons and never got banned, though purists may have raised eyebrows. One could always ask  - why a western instrument? Experts opine that there was a desire to make Carnatic music modern, but I would assume that it was mainly due to the influence of leading musicians such as  the Dikishitar’s, the Tanjavur Quartet and Varahapayyar as well as their proximity and dealings with some friendly British patrons who demonstrated to them the superiority of the instrument and its suitability as a bridge instrument to the vocal. The Sarangi though closer to the human voice, lost out as it was considered socially unacceptable by Tamil Brahmins due to its associations with North Indian courtesans.

Three stories make their rounds with the violin’s or fiddle’s entry into Carnatic.

The first of course deals with Baluswamy Dikshitar and his connections to Ft St George. Muddukrishna Mudaliyar a Zamindar in Manali and a Dubash (translator and interpreter) was well connected with the East India Company. He was also a patron of art and once happened to visit Tiruvavur. Here he listened to Ramaswamy Dikshitar singing and was so captivated that he invited him to Manali. Ramaswamy Dikshitar agreed and shifted to Manali with his family. He was succeeded by his son Venkatakrishna Mudaliar, who continued the patronage to the Dikshitar family. Venkatakrishna Mudaliar (also referred to as Chinnaswami) was also a Dubash of the East India Company and was invited now and then to Fort St George. Chinnaswami would often take Muthuswami and his brother to Fort St. George, to listen to what is known as ‘airs’- Western Music played by Irish men in the British band.

The bands played simple Celtic marching tunes, lilting melodies, easy on the drums and bagpipes and flutes. One the sidelines or in the audience, two young men watched and listened and took it all in. They were not yet bound by the strictures of temple music, and were for that period, affected by melody, rhythm of these alien sounds. Since Muthuswamy had already taken to the Veena, it was decided that Baluswamy should learn playing on the violin. Chinnaswamy Mudaliar engaged a European tutor for this purpose. Three years of practice allowed Balu to play Carnatic ragas and tunes on the newfound instrument, effectively. It is said that he then moved to Thiruvavur, where his performances with the violin were appreciated by all. It also impressed the Rajah of nearby Ettayapuram, a well-known patron of Carnatic music. He appointed Balu as his principal court musician in 1824.

The second relates to the entry of the Tanjavur quartet into the musical scene and the court of Tanjavur king Serfoji II. Serfoji inherited a great musical tradition in his courts from his ancestors, great contributors to the schools of Sadir and Carnatic music (see my previous article). Serfoji was not only trained in local arts but was also schooled in the western fashion by CF Schwarz and even though the English rulers were in full control, they allowed him to continue as a titular monarch thus providing him the time to scholarly pursuits. The musical department of his court was headed by Varahappa Dikshitar of Varahapayyar. The four brothers who served in the court reported to Varahapayyar. The brothers or the quartet as they came to be known as, were Ponnaiah a composer and vocalist, Chinnaiah a choreographer, Sivanandam who excelled as a mridangist and nattuvanar, and lastly Vadivelu a composer and violinist. Vadivelu, an accomplished vocalist, composer and violinist was the youngest and is said to have accompanied himself on the violin, which by itself is a rare accomplishment at those high levels.

Vadivelu who initially studied the violin under his teacher Schwarz (some others say that Varahapayyar chose the violin over the piano and later taught Vadivelu). Vadivelu later became a disciple of Muthuswami Dikshitar when he spent four years in Tanjore. He mastered the instrument and became so proficient that Thaygaraja, it is said, would summon Vadivelu often to listen to the new instrument. Vadivelu eventually had a tiff with Serfoji and moved to neighboring Travancore. Vadivelu’s skills as a vocalist, dance expert and violinist had caught the fancy of Swathi Thirunal and the young genius, aged just 22 years of age, was appointed as Asthanavidwan of Travancore court. Vadivelu was a scholar in Tamil and Telugu and his violin mastery is said to have been unmatched.  Swathi was convinced of the importance of violin to Carnatic music and he ordered it be used in concerts after gifting a rare violin made of ivory to Vadivelu, in 1834. Examples of vadivelu’s input can I believe be seen in Swati Tirunals varnam (Shankarabharanam) where the pitch intervals match the western scale and the end tapers to a marching beat.

The third story is connected to Varahappayar, the head of the music department in Serfoji’s court. It appears that Varahapayyar who spoke English, would usually be sent to speak to the British governor in Madras. During one such visit, the British musicians impressed with Varahapayyars abilities taught him bits on the violin, and Varahapayyar demonstrated what he had learnt by playing a few Carnatic tunes to the governor. The pleased administrator presented him with a violin. Returning to Tanjavur, Varahapayyar played the instrument for Serfoji, and as it went on to help the entry of the violin into Carnatic music performances in Tanjore.

A fourth possibility is that Vedanayagam picked up Violin notes from Fr Schwartz and trained Vadivelu. There is also a mention that Schwartz was deputed for a while to Tirunelveli and he had trained Travancore’s king Dharma Raja, a mention which is however not yet substantiated.

When music then left the majestic court halls and moved to the concert halls, it is explained that the violin proved to be a perfect accompaniment to the vocalist. It could set itself above the noisy environment of a crowded Madras and proved to be a good match for the vocalist as it tracked him through the tune or in between in repetition. The instrument was flexible, it could be tuned to any pitch that the vocalist chooses while the bow lends continuity, a necessary ingredient for vocal music. The tonal quality and the volume that it produced enable it to blend with the human voice. Experts opine that it can play at any speed or tempo, to match the vocalist or other instruments as its range covers 3 octaves, the normal range for a decent vocalist. Not only that, it can reproduce most of the subtle nuances, gamakas, modulations, and match all the srutis which are dominant characteristics of Carnatic music.

The South Indian violinist typically sits cross-legged on the floor and balances the instrument between his chest and the ankle bone of his right foot, on which rests the scroll of the violin. This posture facilitates the free movement of the left hand along the fingerboard, particularly in producing the gamakas (graces) integral to the Carnatic mode. It also necessitated appropriate changes in bowing and fingering techniques. Comparing with western music, the significant difference is in the way Carnatic violinists play their instruments, rather than the instrument itself. Indian violinists place an emphasis on continuity, as opposed to western violinists who prefer to focus on the notes. Philip Peter explains - The Indian style of playing the violin closely imitates the human voice. Hence there is a lot of ornamentation. Indian violinists use varying heights of bridges in order to control the string tension. For example, the violin maybe tuned low in order to match a male vocalist. This would result in low string tension resulting in the use of a high bridge. Conversely, an instrument tuned high has a low bridge height.

During its development in South India, subtle changes occurred as the violin was being adapted to the vocalist. Experts tell us that in the Western system, the four strings are tuned in the order E A D G from right to left, each five tones apart. However, in the Carnatic system, the tuning is not absolute but relative. Initially the tuning was in the order of Sa Pa Sa Pa from right to left (higher octave to lower octave). Annaswami Sastri is said to have followed this mode. Subsequently the tuning was changed to Pa Sa Pa Sa - the first two strings from the right are aligned to the middle octave while the third and fourth to the lower octaves.

And thus the violin started to get used as a mimic to the human voice, following the vocalist, sometimes surpassing it, sometimes being subservient, but becoming an acceptable and dependable companion to the lead singer, in the hands of a trained violinist. 

After the introduction of the violin by Baluswami Dikshitar and others, the efforts of the next generation of violinists, like Tanjavur Sivaramakrishna Iyer, Annaswamy Sastri (grandson of Shyama Sastri), Fiddle Subbarayar etc. helped the role of the violin to grow. Gradually the violin took precedence over all others as the main melodic accompanying instrument to vocal music and has come to stay. Newer maestros like Kunnankudi Vaidyanathan, TN Krishnan, Lalgudi Jayaraman, L Shankar, L Subramaniam, U Srinivas and so on set the future standards. 200 years later, we can see that the violin is these days a standard part and parcel of South Indian classical music. The Bangalore style and specific hardware modifications were the handiwork of a great Kannada violinist Chowdiah, and the Chowdiah hall, shaped like an Indian 7 stringed violin is a famed concert hall in Bangalore. The violin developed further. As time went by, electric pickups were added, then the entire instrument got modified during the mid-20^th century to a solid body, duly integrated with electronics and 5 strings.

Some might wonder why the Harmonium, ever a part of Hindustani and even film music in the south, never found popularity in Carnatic music. Why was it banned on the AIR and continues to be banned for solo performances? A future article will provide answers to those interested.

The Ravanahatta or Ravanastron is still played in India, played by the bards and minstrels of the Nayaka community in Rajasthan and Gujarat. These Bhopas play it in honor of Pabuji, their folk deity in a 36 hour recitation of The Epic of Pabuji. 

Getting back to the violin, we had a maestro in Kerala whom we all so adored and I had the opportunity and good fortune to watch one of his livewire performances, 11 years ago, in California. Alas! Balabhaskar, a virtuoso on the violin is no more, he passed away a few weeks ago. As they said - Wielding his electric violin, he was a favorite with the hip crowd, but he was also equally loved by the classical music buffs….

This is dedicated to his memory.

References

Music and music makers- Constance Morse

Violin making – As it was and is - Edward Heron-Allen

Listening to the Violin in South Indian Classical Music – Amanda Weidman (Theorizing the Local: Music, Practice, and Experience in South Asia and Beyond - Ed Richard K. Wolf)

Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of music in South India – Amanda Weidman

Ornamentation in South Indian Music and the Violin - Gordon N. Swift

The violin in Carnatic music: by Subhadra Vijaykumar (Showtime March 23, 2007)

The Tanjavur Quartet 

Tanjore and its Carnatic music legacy

pic – Balabhasker 3dvarius 

Note: 

One or two readers had queried me on the famed ivory violin gifted to Vadivelu by Swati Tirunal. The ivory violin with an engraved Travancore state emblem, the eagle, gifted by Swathi in 1934, apparently made by a local craftsman is these days, is kept at the Tanjavur quartet’s ancestral home (1818, West Main Street, Behind Brihadeswara Temple, Thanjavoor). 

This violin yellowed with age and a bow with worn out strings is can be seen in a glass case in the house. Though it is said that Vadivelu left Thanjavur and never returned, his descendants mention that he did come just once, to leave this violin back in his ancestral home. Some Stella Mary’s students who visited the home in 1954, played the violin and commented thus “The original bow is lost; the violin, now yellow with age, emits a strange tone, due perhaps to the fact that it is made of ivory.”